200-201 Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) Questions and Answers

NIST Special Publication 800-61 r2 outlines the incident response process including detection and analysis, which involves identifying and validating the occurrence of incidents, and post-incident activity that focuses on lessons learned and improvements to be made after an incident has occurred. References := NIST Special Publication 800-61 r2

 Traffic fragmentation is an evasion technique where an attacker splits malicious payloads into smaller packets. This can help avoid detection since some security systems may not reassemble these packets to inspect the complete payload.

 Full packet capture requires the largest amount of storage space because it involves recording all packets that pass through a network, including all headers and payloads. This type of data collection is comprehensive and allows for detailed analysis, but due to the volume of data it encompasses, it demands significant storage capacity1.

References := The Cisco Secure Network Analytics Data Store Design Guide discusses the storage requirements for different types of network data collection, highlighting the substantial storage needs for full packet captures1.

An SSL certificate enables the establishment of a secure connection between the client and the server using the TLS protocol. The client and the server exchange keys and agree on a cipher suite to encrypt and decrypt the data transmitted over the network. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Source Documents

Social engineering attacks involve manipulating individuals into divulging confidential information or performing actions that compromise security. The fake offer for a free music download is a classic example of social engineering, where attackers lure users with a tempting offer to trick them into providing personal information or downloading malware.

Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS)

The PCAP file shows a network packet capture of an HTTP GET request from a client to a server. The User-Agent header field identifies the type and version of the client software that generated the request. In this case, the User-Agent is Mozilla/5.0, which indicates that the client is using a Mozilla-based browser or application. The User-Agent can help the server to customize the response based on the client’s capabilities and preferences. References: Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) v1.0, Module 3: Network Protocols and Services, Lesson 3.2: HTTP and HTTPS, Topic 3.2.1: HTTP Headers.

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Resource exhaustion is an evasion technique where an attacker overwhelms a system with a high volume of requests from multiple sources. This can cause the system to become overloaded and unable to process legitimate traffic, potentially allowing the attacker to bypass security measures like intrusion detection systems.

References := The answers are based on the knowledge from the Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) course material, which covers various cybersecurity concepts, including file identification methods, application control technologies, firewall utilities, and evasion techniques

An attack vector is the method or technique that an attacker uses to exploit a vulnerability in a system or network. An attack vector can be a software, hardware, or human component that can be manipulated to gain unauthorized access, execute malicious code, or cause damage. An attack surface is the sum of all the possible attackvectors that are exposed by a system or network. An attack surface can be reduced by applying security measures such as patching, hardening, firewalling, and encrypting. References: Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) - Cisco, page 1-4; 200-201 CBROPS - Cisco, exam topic 1.1.c

A sandbox is a technology on a host that is used to isolate a running application from other applications. A sandbox creates a controlled and restricted environment for the application to execute, limiting its access to system resources and data. A sandbox can prevent the application from spreading malware, stealing information, or causing damage to the host or the network. A sandbox can also be used to test and analyze the behavior of unknown or suspicious applications without risking the security of the host. Application allow list, application block list, and host-based firewall are other technologies on a host that can be used to control or restrict the execution of applications, but they do not isolate them from other applications. References:

How can I best isolate a particular program (game)

App isolation in Windows 10

Types of Endpoint Application Isolation and Containment Technology

 The unauthorized usage of “Tcpdump” tool indicates that the malicious insider was attempting to obtain all information within datagrams passing through a specific interface on the network. Tcpdump allows users to capture packet data from a live network or read packets from a previously saved capture file. References := Cisco CyberOps - Module 3: Network Data and Event Analysis

Patch management is the process of distributing and managing updates to software and systems. These updates can include patches for security vulnerabilities, bug fixes, andenhancements to improve performance or add new features. It ensures that systems are up-to-date, secure, and performing optimally. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Training

The command “$ cuckoo submit --machine cuckoo1 /path/to/binary” indicates that a binary located at “/path/to/binary” is being submitted to be run on a virtual machine named “cuckoo1”. This is a common practice in cybersecurity to analyze the behavior of suspicious files in an isolated environment. References: Cisco Cybersecurity documents or resources are needed for more detailed information.

The logs indicating multiple local TCP connection events are typically provided by a firewall. Firewalls are responsible for monitoring and controlling incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules, and they generate logs that detail such events, which can be used for further analysis and incident response. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals

The exhibit shows an HTTP GET request with a parameter that includes; /bin/sh -c id.

This indicates a command injection attempt, where the attacker is trying to execute shell commands on the server.

Command injection vulnerabilities allow an attacker to execute arbitrary commands on the host operating system via a vulnerable application.

The use of/bin/shand the-cflag is typical in command injection exploits to run shell commands, such asid, which returns user identity information.

References

OWASP Command Injection

Analyzing HTTP Requests for Injection Attacks

Web Application Security Testing Guidelines

Upgrading to TLS v1.3 is recommended because it eliminates outdated cryptographic functions and reduces the risk of downgrade attacks, which can occur when attackers force connections to use weaker encryption. TLS v1.3 only supports secure cipher suites and algorithms, enhancing the security of communications.

An untampered disk image is one that has not been altered since its creation. This is verified by comparing the stored hash of the image at the time of creation with a newly computed hash; if they match, the image is considered untampered. Tampered images, on the other hand, may be used during the root cause analysis process to understand how and what was altered12. References: The differences between tampered and untampered disk images are discussed in cybersecurity literature, including Cisco’scertification guides, which explain the importance of hash matching for verifying the integrity of disk images

 DNS amplification is a type of Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack where an attacker uses publicly accessible open DNS servers to flood a target with DNS response traffic. The goal is to overwhelm the target with traffic, causing a denial of service.

The principle of least privilege states that users and processes should be granted only the minimum permissions necessary to perform their specific role or function within an organization. This reduces the attack surface and limits the potential damage of a compromised account or process. References:

Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) v1.0, Module 1: Security Concepts, Lesson 1.2: Security Principles

Cisco Certified CyberOps Associate Overview, Exam Topics, 1.1 Explain the CIA triad

 In the context of phishing emails, the threat actor is the entity that is responsible for initiating the threat, which in this case is the sender of the phishing emails. The sender is impersonating the HR department to deceive the receiver into believing that the emails are legitimate

Based on the image details, the exhibit shows a series of HTTP requests with the method GET, which are used to retrieve data from a web server. There is no evidence of any malicious payload or parameter in these requests, so they are likely regular GET requests. The other options are types of web application attacks that exploit different vulnerabilities, such as XML External Entities, insecure deserialization, and cross-site scripting. References := Cisco Cybersecurity

In a PCAP file, which is used to capture network packets, each packet contains various pieces of information that can be analyzed. The source and destination addresses refer to the IP addresses of the sender and receiver of the packets. The source and destination ports refer to the port numbers used for the communication, with common ports like 443 indicating HTTPS traffic. The network protocol here is TCP, which is responsible for establishing a connection and ensuring the delivery of packets. The transport protocol is IPv4, which is the underlying protocol for routing packets across the network. Lastly, the application protocol is TLS v1.2, which is used for secure communication over the internet.

References := The Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) course material covers the analysis of network traffic and the interpretation of PCAP files, which includes identifying the different elements within a packet capture1.

A load balancer is the correct technology to implement a solution that makes routing decisions based on HTTP header, uniform resource identifier (URI), and SSL session ID attributes. Load balancers can inspect incoming traffic and make routing decisions to distribute the traffic across multiple servers based on various attributes, including the ones mentioned, to ensure optimal resource use and efficient traffic management12.

References :=

Cisco Unified Border Element Configuration Guide1.

URI based outbound Dial-peer configuration on CUBE - Cisco Community

 The alert from the Cisco ASA device and the numerous activity logs are examples of circumstantial evidence. Circumstantial evidence is evidence that relies on an inference or deduction to connect it to a conclusion of fact, such as a security incident or an attack. Circumstantial evidence does not directly prove the fact in question, but rather suggests or implies it. In this case, the alert and the logs indicate that a TCP connection attempt was denied by an access group, but they do not directly prove that an attack occurred or who was behind it. There could be other explanations for the denied connection, such as a misconfiguration, a network error, or a legitimate request. Therefore, this type of evidence is circumstantial and requires further investigation and analysis to confirm or rule out the possibility of an attack. References := Circumstantial evidence - Wikipedia; Circumstantial Evidence - Definition, Examples, Cases, Processes; Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) - Cisco, page 92.

Encryption is challenging to security monitoring because it can be used by threat actors as a method of evasion and obfuscation. Encryption can prevent security devices from inspecting the content or payload of the network traffic, making it difficult to detect malicious activity or signatures. Encryption can also hide the source and destination of the traffic, making it hard to trace the origin or destination of the attack. References: https://learningnetworkstore.cisco.com/on-demand-e-learning/understanding-cisco-cybersecurity-operations-fundamentals-cbrops-v1-0/CSCU-LP-CBROPS-V1-028093.html (Module 4, Lesson 4.1.1)

Untampered images are crucial for security investigations as they provide original evidence that has not been altered or corrupted; their integrity and authenticity can be verified by comparing the stored hash and the computed hash of the image. If they match, the image is untampered and can be used for analysis. Tampered images, on the other hand, are useless for security investigations as they may contain false or misleading information; their integrity and authenticity are compromised by the modification of the image data. Tampered images may be used for incident recovery purposes, such as restoring a system to a previous state, but not for forensic purposes. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals - Module 6: Security Incident Investigations

 In the incident response process, detection and analysis involve researching an attacking host through logs in a Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) system. This step helps in identifying, validating, and managing potential security incidents. References := Cisco CyberOps Associate - Module 3: Security Monitoring

DDoS attacks are divided into two categories: reflected and direct. Reflected attacks use a third-party system to amplify the attack traffic and send it to the target. For example, an attacker can send a spoofed request to a DNS server, which will reply with a large amount of data to the target’s IP address. Direct attacks send the attack traffic directly from the attacker’s system or a botnet to the target. For example, an attacker can send a large number of SYN packets to the target’s port, exhausting its resources. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals, Module 1: Security Concepts, Lesson 1.3: Common Network Application Operations and Attacks, Topic 1.3.4: Denial-of-Service Attacks

Lateral movement relies heavily on reconnaissance to identify systems, services, and attack paths inside a compromised network. The Nmap scan in the exhibit reveals open ports and associated services, which directly support this objective.

Option A is correct because identifying the function and service the server is providing allows the attacker to understand the system’s role. Services such as msrpc, netbios-ssn, and microsoft-ds strongly indicate a Windows host offering file sharing, remote procedure calls, and domain-related services. This information helps attackers select appropriate exploits, credential theft techniques, or privilege escalation paths.

Option C is also correct because running services and open ports are one of the most valuable outputs of a network scan. Open ports such as 135, 139, and 445 expose services that are commonly targeted for lateral movement using techniques like SMB relay attacks, Pass-the-Hash, or exploitation of known vulnerabilities.

Option B is incorrect because CPU details and vendor versions are not revealed in this scan output. Option D is incorrect because Nmap does not enumerate logged-in user security identifiers. Option E is incorrect because latency values are not used for command injection planning in lateral movement scenarios.

Therefore, the two scan elements that assist the attacker are the server’s function and its running services and ports.

The Cuckoo sandbox report shows the analysis results of a file named "VirusShare_fc1937c1aa536b3744ebfb1716fd5f4d".

The file type is identified as a PE32 executable for MS Windows.

The "Yara" section indicates that the file contains shellcode, which matches specific shellcode byte patterns.

Shellcode typically indicates that the file will execute a payload, often used to open a command interpreter or execute commands directly.

Additionally, the antivirus result shows that the file was identified as containing a trojan (Trojan.Generic.7654828), which is consistent with behaviors such as opening a command interpreter for malicious purposes.

References

Cuckoo Sandbox Documentation

Analysis of Shellcode Behavior

Understanding Trojan Malware Functionality

The attack described is a DNS amplification attack. It involves infected endpoints sending DNS requests with spoofed IP addresses to external DNS servers. The DNS servers then send large responses to the spoofed addresses, which are actually the targets of the attack. This can result in a significant amount of traffic being directed at the target, overwhelming their network resources. DNS amplification is a type of Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack that leverages the DNS protocol to amplify the attack traffic.

Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) is an approach to restricting system access to authorized users based on their roles within an organization. It depends on the job functions that individual users have as part of their responsibilities and is designed to reduce administrative work by assigning roles based on job competency, authority, and responsibility. References: Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals, Module 1: Security Concepts, Lesson 1.2: Data Protection, Topic 1.2.2: Access Control Models

A Certificate Authority (CA) is responsible for issuing digital certificates to validate the identity of the certificate holder and provide a means to establish secure communications over networks like the Internet. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Source Documents

The “ps” command is used to display information about the processes running on a system. The “-ef” option shows the full format listing, which includes the process ID, the user, the CPU and memory usage, the command name, and other details. This can help the engineer identify which processes are consuming the most resources and causing the degraded performance of the server. The other options are either invalid or irrelevant, as they do not provide the necessary information or perform the required action. References := Cisco Cybersecurity

When an analyst needs to quickly assess a historical security event on a busy network segment, efficiency and scalability are critical. NetFlow is specifically designed to support rapid, high-level analysis of network activity without requiring deep packet inspection.

NetFlow provides summarized metadata such as source and destination IP addresses, ports, protocols, timestamps, and volume of data transferred. This information allows engineers to quickly identify suspicious hosts, unusual traffic patterns, and the scope of potential incidents—even when they have little prior context. Because NetFlow data is compact, indexed, and optimized for querying, it is far more suitable for fast analysis over long time ranges, such as a full month.

In contrast, .pcap files contain full packet payloads and generate massive data volumes, especially on busy network segments. Analyzing .pcap data without a specific hypothesis is time-consuming and computationally expensive, making it impractical for quick triage or broad scoping.

Cybersecurity operations documentation emphasizes NetFlow as the preferred data source for initial investigation, scoping, and rapid situational awareness, with packet captures reserved for deeper forensic analysis once suspicious activity has been identified.

Therefore, NetFlow is the correct choice for fast, efficient analysis in this scenario.

 A man-in-the-middle attack occurs when a third party intercepts and potentially alters the communication between two parties (in this case, two IP phones) without them knowing. This type of attack can lead to eavesdropping, where the attacker can gain unauthorized access to sensitive data being communicated between the two parties. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals - Module 5: Endpoint Threat Analysis and Computer Forensics

Traffic mirroring is a technique that copies the traffic from a source port or VLAN to a destination port or VLAN, where it can be analyzed by a security device or tool. Traffic mirroring does not affect the original traffic flow and does not introduce any latency or modification to the packets. Inline traffic interrogation is a technique that forwards the traffic directly to the security device or tool, where it can be inspected and modified before being sent to the destination. Inline traffic interrogation can introduce latency and affect the performance of the network. References:

Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) - Cisco, Module 2: Security Monitoring, Lesson 2.2: Network Security Monitoring Tools

200-201 CBROPS - Cisco, Exam Topics, 2.0 Security Monitoring, 2.2 Describe the impact of various technologies on security monitoring

Cisco Certified CyberOps Associate Overview - Cisco Learning Network, Videos, 2.2 Describe the impact of various technologies on security monitoring

 Secure boot and restricting USB ports are two components that can reduce the attack surface on an endpoint. The attack surface is the sum of all paths for data into and out of the environment. Reducing the attack surface means minimizing the number and complexity of these paths, and thus reducing the opportunities for attackers to exploit vulnerabilities or gain unauthorized access. Secure boot is a feature that ensures that only trusted and verified code can run during the boot process, preventing malware or unauthorized software from compromising the system. Restricting USB ports is a policy that limits the use of USB devices, such as flash drives or external hard drives, that can introduce malware or exfiltrate data from the endpoint.

[Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) - Module 4: Network Intrusion Analysis], [Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) - Module 5: Security Policies and Procedures]

The defense-in-depth strategy is a layered approach to security that includes multiple defensive measures to protect against threats. Dividing the network into parts (B) helps isolate potential breaches, making it harder for an attacker to move laterally across the network. Implementing the patch management process (E) ensures that systems are up-to-date with the latest security patches, reducing vulnerabilities that attackers could exploit.

Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) course

Deep packet inspection (DPI) analyzes the data part (and possibly also the header) of a packet as it passes an inspection point, searching for protocol non-compliance, viruses, spam, intrusions, or defined criteria to decide whether the packet may pass or if it needs to be routed to a different destination. Stateful inspection, on the other hand, tracks the state of active connections and determines which network packets to allow through the firewall. While stateful inspection tracks the state of connections (Layer 4 - transport layer), DPI goes further by examining the payload of the packet (Layer 7 - application layer).

Cisco’s official documentation and cybersecurity courses would explain the differences between deep packet inspection and stateful inspection, including their respective layers of operation.

Exploitation - The targeted Environment is taken advantage of triggering the threat actor's code

Installation - Backdoor is placed on the victim system allowing the threat actor to maintain the persistence.

Command and Control - An outbound connection is established to an Internet-based controller server.

Actions and Objectives - The threat actor takes actions to violate data integrity and availability

 Tap and SPAN are two methods of capturing network traffic for analysis. Tap (Test Access Point) is a hardware device that is inserted between two network devices and sends a copy of all traffic to a monitoring device. SPAN (Switched Port Analyzer) is a software feature that allows a network switch to replicate traffic from one or more source ports to a destination port, where a monitoring device is connected. Both methods provide visibility into network traffic, but Tap is more reliable and less intrusive than SPAN, as it does not affect the network performance or introduce errors. References := Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) - Cisco, page 68.

When analyzing a pcap file, data encryption can pose a significant challenge in terms of visibility. Encrypted data cannot be easily inspected, which means that the analyst may not be able to view the contents of the network packets to detect suspicious activity.

The answers are based on the general knowledge of host-based firewalls and the challenges faced during the analysis of pcap files in cybersecurity, as outlined in Cisco’s cybersecurity documentation and resources.

The ping of death is a type of attack that involves sending oversized or malformed packets using the ICMP protocol to crash, freeze, or reboot the target system1.

UDP flooding is an attack method that sends a large number of User Datagram Protocol (UDP) packets to random ports on a remote host, causing the host to repeatedly check for the application listening at that port, and (when no application is found) reply with an ICMP Destination Unreachable packet. This process can saturate the network and the resources of the host, leading to denial of service2.

Cloudflare’s explanation of common DoS attacks1.

Wikipedia’s description of denial-of-service attack methods

The packet capture shows that IP address 192.168.88.149, using source port 80 (common for HTTP traffic), initiated communication with IP address 192.168.88.12 at destination port 49098, using the TCP protocol, indicating a typical client-server interaction over the web.

= These explanations are based on general cybersecurity principles as outlined in Cisco’s training and certification content, such as the Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) and other related Cisco resources.

A screenshot of a computer Description automatically generated

 Encryption ensures that data is secure and unreadable to unauthorized individuals without the proper decryption key. It is a critical aspect of maintaining data confidentiality and security, especially in the transmission of sensitive information over potentially insecure networks1.

References := What Is Encryption? Explanation and Types - Cisco

The engineer engaged with the service component by enabling “Audiosrv,” which is the Windows Audio Service responsible for managing audio for Windows-based programs. By setting it to auto-start, the engineer ensured that the service would run automatically upon system startup. Additionally, the engineer interacted with process and thread management by using the Task Manager to modify the behavior of the “Audiosrv” service.

The information is based on standard operating procedures for troubleshooting audio issues in Windows OS, which involves services and processes management.

 CDFS stands for Compact Disc File System, which is a file system used by Mac OS to store data on CDs. CDFS is also known as ISO 9660, which is a standard format for data interchange on optical discs. CDFS allows files to be accessed by different operating systems, such as Windows, Linux, and Mac OS. Therefore, an ISO file that is stored in CDFS format is data from a CD copied using Mac-based system. References := Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) v1.0, Module 4: Network Intrusion Analysis, Lesson 4.4: File Type Analysis, Topic 4.4.1: File Systems, page 4-40.

Deep packet inspection (DPI) is a sophisticated method of examining the content of data packets as they pass through a network checkpoint, including both the header and the data payload. DPI is typically performed at the application layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. This allows the inspection process to evaluate the actual content of the packets, not just the header information, enabling the identification of various types of threats and the enforcement of network policies1.

References := The explanation aligns with the information provided by Digital Guardian, which details how DPI works and at which layer it is applied1.

The attack vector score in the Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS) reflects how a vulnerability can be exploited. A higher score is given when the attack can be conducted remotely, making it easier for an attacker to exploit the vulnerability without physical access to the vulnerable component3. References: The CVSS specification document provides a detailed explanation of how the attack vector score is determined, emphasizing the impact of the ease of exploitation on the score

 Vulnerability management is a proactive approach to securing systems by identifying and fixing vulnerabilities before they can be exploited by attackers. It involves scanning systems for known weaknesses, prioritizing and assessing the risks of those vulnerabilities, and applying patches or other remediation measures to mitigate them. Vulnerability management helps reduce the attack surface and prevent potential breaches. References := Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) - Cisco, page 11.

Network Address Translation (NAT) is the technology that allows a single IP address to send and receive traffic for multiple devices by modifying the IP header. NAT remaps one IP address space into another, enabling multiple devices to use a single public IP address to send and receive packets through the Internet2.

References := The concept of NAT and its role in network traffic management is detailed in networking resources and documentation, including those provided by network solution providers2.

Threat hunting is a proactive cybersecurity technique that involves searching for indicators of compromise or signs of intrusion within an organization’s network or systems. Unlike automated detection systems, threat hunting is typically carried out by security analysts who use their knowledge and intuition to identify subtle, unusual patterns that may indicate a security breach. The goal of threat hunting is to identify and mitigate threats before they can cause significant damage.

The CBROPS course material covers the concept of threat hunting as part of the skill set required for cybersecurity operations analysts, who are responsible for identifying and mitigating cyber threats

https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/troubleshoot/windows-server/performance/windows-registry-advanced-users

A false negative occurs when an intrusion detection system (IDS) fails to detect and report actual malicious activity. This means that a legitimate security alert has been dismissed or overlooked, allowing potentially harmful traffic to pass through the network undetected. The impact of false negatives can be significant as they represent missed opportunities to stop or mitigate security threats1.

References := Cisco documentation on security systems, such as IPS (Intrusion Prevention System), discusses the importance of accurately detecting malicious activity and the risks associated with false negatives, which include the failure to trigger alerts for actual attacks1.

The main difference between inline traffic interrogation (TAPS) and traffic mirroring (SPAN) lies in how they handle network traffic for analysis purposes. TAPS, or Test Access Points, are hardware devices that create a copy of the traffic between two network points without altering the data. This means TAPS can transmit both send and receive data streams simultaneously on separate dedicated channels, ensuring all data, including physical layer errors, is received by the monitoring or security device in real-time. On the other hand, SPAN, or Switch Port Analyzer, is a feature that duplicates network packets seen on one port to another port for analysis. However, SPAN ports can filter out physical layer errors, which may limit the types of analyses that can be performed as some errors will not be represented in the mirrored traffic.

The distinction between TAPS and SPAN is covered in the Cisco CyberOps Associate CBROPS 200-201 course, which provides foundational knowledge for network monitoring and security analysis1. Additionally, industry resources such as Garland Technology’s comparison of TAPS and SPAN highlight the differences in performance and integrity of the traffic being analyzed

 Rule-based detection is a type of intrusion detection system (IDS) that uses predefined rules or signatures to identify malicious or suspicious activity. Rule-based detection can provide proof of a user’s action, such as an attempt to exploit a known vulnerability or execute a malicious command. Rule-based detection can also provide a high level of accuracy and specificity, but it requires constant updates and maintenance of the rules or signatures. References: https://learningnetworkstore.cisco.com/on-demand-e-learning/understanding-cisco-cybersecurity-operations-fundamentals-cbrops-v1.0/CSCU-LP-CBROPS-V1-028093.html (Module 4: Attack Methods, Lesson 4.2: Attack Techniques)

The analyst is in the detection and analysis phase of the incident response process according to NIST SP800-61. In this phase, events are detected and analyzed to determine whether they constitute incidents that require a response. It involves monitoring security events or data collection, correlation, and analysis of log entries and network flow data, among others. The goal is to identify incidents quickly so that appropriate actions can be taken. References := NIST SP800-61, Computer Security Incident Handling Guide, Section 3.2: Detection and Analysis

 The discrepancy described suggests that the system had a Host Intrusion Detection System (HIDS) installed. HIDS are designed to monitor and analyze the internals of a computing system for signs of intrusion and policy violations. While they can detect unauthorized activities, they do not take direct action to stop an attack; this is typically the role of an intrusion prevention system. Therefore, the alert was generated, but no mitigation action was taken because the HIDS does not have the capability to intervene.

References := The Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) course material covers the functions and limitations of various security systems, including HIDS, and their role within a Security Operations Center (SOC)1.

The CDFS (Compact Disc File System) format is associated with the ISO 9660 standard, which is a file system for optical disc media. It is commonly used in Windows systems for CDs. When a security expert works on an ISO file saved in CDFS format, it typically indicates that the data was prepared or copied using a Windows-based system. This is because CDFS is the file system that Windows uses to read and write CDs, and the ISO file is an image of that CD data1.

References :=

Understanding CDFS (Compact Disc File System): A Comprehensive Guide2.

What type of evidence is this file? - VCEguide.com

What Are Ports 139 And 445? SMB has always been a network file sharing protocol. As such, SMB requires network ports on a computer or server to enable communication to other systems. SMB uses either IP port 139 or 445. Port 139 - SMB originally ran on top of NetBIOS using port 139. NetBIOS is an older transport layer that allows Windows computers to talk to each other on the same network. Port 445 - Later versions of SMB (after Windows 2000) began to use port 445 on top of a TCP stack. Using TCP allows SMB to work over the internet. https://www.varonis.com/blog/smb-port SMB Ports 139 and 445 are open Email Ports 25 and 110 are closed Therefore "D. Email Ports are closed on the Server."

A network TAP (Test Access Point) is a hardware device designed to create an exact, full-fidelity copy of network traffic for monitoring and packet analysis. TAPs operate at the physical layer and replicate all packets—including errors and malformed frames—without dropping traffic.

This makes TAPs ideal for packet sniffing, intrusion detection, and forensic analysis where accuracy and completeness are critical. TAPs do not rely on switch resources and do not introduce packet loss during periods of high traffic.

SPAN (mirror) ports can also copy traffic but are dependent on switch processing capacity and may drop packets during congestion, making them unreliable for full-fidelity capture. NAT modifies traffic, and tunneling encapsulates data rather than copying it.

Cybersecurity operations documentation consistently identifies TAPs as the preferred solution when exact traffic replication is required.

Therefore, the correct answer is tap.

TOR is a network that enables anonymous communication over the internet by routing the traffic through a series of relays or nodes. TOR alters the data content during transit by encrypting it and the destination information over multiple layers, using a technique called onion routing. Each layer of encryption can only be decrypted by a specific relay in the network, which reveals the next destination. This way, no single relay knows the complete path or the content of the data, making it difficult to trace or monitor the communication. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals, Module 2: Security Monitoring, Lesson 2.1: The Network as a Sensor, Topic 2.1.3: Network Data Exfiltration Techniques

 For high availability and responsiveness, especially where milliseconds of latency are critical, an engineer must analyze the network’s performance in detail. Total throughput on the interface of the router will provide information on the bandwidth and traffic load, which is essential for understanding if the network can handle the current and projected traffic without delays. NetFlow records are crucial for this analysis as they provide data about the traffic flow across the network, which helps in identifying patterns, peak usage times, and types of traffic. This information is vital for making informed decisions to optimize traffic movement and minimize latency123.

References :=

Cisco’s guide on Network Traffic Analysis1.

Cisco’s white paper on Network Security Policy: Best Practices2.

Cisco’s documentation on Implementation of High Availability

 The average time taken by a Security Operations Center (SOC) to detect and resolve incidents is a critical metric for evaluating its effectiveness and scope. This metric reflects the SOC’s efficiency in identifying security threats and its ability to respond and mitigate those threats promptly. It encompasses the entire incident lifecycle, from initial detection to final resolution, providing a comprehensive measure of the SOC’s performance1.

References :=

Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS)

A threat is a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach the security and cause harm to an asset. An asset is anything of value that needs to be protected, such as data, systems, or networks. A vulnerability is a weakness or flaw in the security that can beexploited by a threat. An exploit is a piece of code or a technique that takes advantage of a vulnerability to compromise the security and perform malicious actions on an asset. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals, Module 1: Security Concepts, Lesson 1.1: The CIA Triad and Security Concepts, Topic 1.1.3: Threats, Vulnerabilities, and Exploits

Reflective XSS, also known as Non-Persistent XSS, occurs when an attacker sends a malicious script to a user through a web application, and the script is executed immediately in the user’s browser without being stored on the server. This type of attack is typically carried out by including the malicious script in a URL, which is then sent to the victim. When the victim clicks on the link, the script runs in their browser, reflecting the attacker’s actions without storing the payload for repeated use12. References: OWASP Foundation’s documentation on Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) provides detailed information on the different types of XSS attacks, including Reflective XSS

According to NIST SP800-61, the incident response phase called “Containment, Eradication, and Recovery” involves containing the incident, eradicating the threat, and recovering from the incident2. In the scenario described, the engineer worked on containing the DDoS attack by identifying the attacker and the technique used, which is part of the containment process. The recommendation to implement Blackhole filtering is part of the eradication process, where measures are taken to prevent the attack from happening again. Finally, restoring the server is part of the recovery process, where normal operations are resumed. Therefore, the engineer finished work during the “Containment, Eradication, and Recovery” phase. References: NIST SP800-61 Computer Security Incident Handling Guide2.

A man-in-the-middle attack is a type of cyberattack where an attacker intercepts and alters the communication between two parties who believe they are directly communicating with each other. In this case, the attacker is impersonating mail.google.com and presenting a fake certificate to the endpoint device. The endpoint device detects that the certificate is not issued by a trusted authority and displays an error message. The attacker can then monitor or modify the traffic between the endpoint device and mail.google.com. References:

Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) - Cisco, Module 3: Host-Based Analysis, Lesson 3.2: Endpoint Security Technologies

200-201 CBROPS - Cisco, Exam Topics, 3.0 Host-Based Analysis, 3.2 Compare and contrast the functionality of these endpoint security technologies

Cisco Certified CyberOps Associate Overview - Cisco Learning Network, Videos, 3.2 Compare and contrast the functionality of these endpoint security technologies

In the context of the cyber kill chain model, spam campaigns fall under the “delivery” phase where attackers deliver malicious payloads via email or other means to target systems or networks. References: Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals, Module 1: Security Concepts, Lesson 1.4: Security Monitoring, Topic 1.4.2: The Cyber Kill Chain Model

In digital forensics, hash values are used to verify the integrity of disk images. When a disk image is created, cryptographic hash functions such as MD5 or SHA-256 are calculated and recorded. These hashes act as a digital fingerprint of the data at the time of acquisition.

An untampered disk image maintains the same hash value throughout the investigation, proving that the data has not been altered. A tampered disk image, however, will produce a different hash value because even the smallest modification to the data changes the resulting hash. This difference immediately indicates that the integrity of the evidence has been compromised.

Options A, C, and D are incorrect because encryption, access permissions, and compression do not define whether an image is tampered. Cybersecurity and forensic documentation consistently emphasizes hash verification as the primary method for validating forensic integrity.

Therefore, the key difference is that a tampered image has a different hash value, making Option B correct.

A regular expression (regex) is a sequence of characters that defines a search pattern for text. A regex can be used to extract custom properties from log messages or events in a SIEM platform. In this case, the regex that matches the phrase “File: Clean” exactly is ^File: Clean$. The ^ symbol indicates the beginning of the line and the $ symbol indicates the end of the line. The regex ensures that no other characters are before or after the phrase. References:

Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) - Cisco, Module 5: Security Policies and Procedures, Lesson 5.3: Data and Event Analysis

200-201 CBROPS - Cisco, Exam Topics, 5.0 Security Policies and Procedures, 5.3 Analyze data as part of security monitoring activities

Cisco Certified CyberOps Associate Overview - Cisco Learning Network, Videos, 5.3 Analyze data as part of security monitoring activities

The containment phase of the incident response lifecycle is focused on limiting the impact of an active incident and preventing it from continuing or spreading further. In this scenario, the organization is experiencing a suspected Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attack, as indicated by high-volume traffic and degraded application performance.

During containment, the Computer Security Incident Response Team (CSIRT) takes immediate actions such as rate limiting, blocking malicious IP addresses, diverting traffic through scrubbing services, or engaging DDoS mitigation providers. The goal is to stabilize services and ensure that the attack no longer affects business operations. This phase also includes confirming that defensive measures have been successfully applied.

Preparation occurs before an incident and involves planning and readiness activities. Eradication focuses on removing the root cause of the incident, such as disabling attacker infrastructure or removing malware, which is not applicable to most DDoS scenarios. Recovery occurs after containment and involves restoring systems to normal operation and monitoring for recurrence.

Cybersecurity operations documentation clearly defines containment as the phase where ongoing attacks are stopped or controlled. Therefore, containment is the correct answer.

A Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack involves multiple compromised devices (botnet) sending a large number of requests to a target server to overwhelm it.

In a specific type of DDoS attack known as an NTP amplification attack, the attacker exploits the Network Time Protocol (NTP) servers by sending small queries with a spoofed source IP address (the target’s IP).

The NTP server responds with a much larger reply to the target’s IP address, thereby amplifying the traffic directed at the target.

This reflection and amplification technique significantly increases the volume of traffic sent to the target, causing denial of service.

References

OWASP DDoS Attack Overview

NTP Amplification Attack Explained

Understanding Botnets and Distributed Attacks

The exhibit shows “HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE,” which is a Windows Registry hive. The registry is a database used to store low-level settings for the operating system and for applications that opt to use the registry. The other options are not related to the exhibit, as they are either a part of the Windows Certificate Manager, a naming convention for Windows PowerShell commands, or a component of the Windows Services Manager. References := Cisco Cybersecurity

https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/sysinfo/registry-hives

https://ldapwiki.com/wiki/HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE#:~:text=HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE%20Windows%20registry%20hive%20contains,detected%20hardware%20and%20device%20drivers.

The IPv4 protocol header contains various fields that provide essential information for routing and delivery of packets across an IP network. Two key pieces of information collected from the IPv4 header are the source IP address and the destination IP address of the packet. These addresses are crucial for identifying where a packet is coming from and where it is intended to go12.

References := The structure and fields of the IPv4 header, including the source and destination IP addresses, are explained in detail in networking resources and documentation, such as the ComputerNetworkingNotes tutorial on IPv4 Header Structure1, and the Engineering LibreTexts on the IPv4 Header2.

An attack surface is the sum of all the points where an attacker can try to enter or extract data from an environment. It includes all the hardware, software, network, and human components that are exposed to potential threats. An attack vector is the path or means by which an attacker can exploit a vulnerability in the attack surface. It describes the type, source, and technique of an attack, such as phishing, malware, denial-of-service, etc. References := Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) v1.0, Module 1: Security Concepts, Lesson 1.1: The CIA Triad and Security Concepts, Topic 1.1.3: Threats, Vulnerabilities, and Exploits

Social engineering techniques often involve manipulating individuals into divulging confidential information or performing actions that compromise security. Phishing involves sending fraudulent messages (often emails) that appear to be from reputable sources with the goal of stealing sensitive data or installing malware. Pharming redirects the traffic of a legitimate website to another fraudulent website without the user’s knowledge, aiming to collect the user’s credentials. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Source Documents

Transaction data consists of connection level, application-specific records generated from network traffic. It provides information about the source, destination, protocol, and application of each network connection. Transaction data can be used to identify anomalies, malicious activities, and user behaviors on the network. References := Cisco CyberOps Engineer

The regular expression that matches both “color” and “colour” is colo?ur. In this expression, the ? denotes that the preceding character u is optional, meaning it may appear zero or one time. This allows the expression to match both the American spelling “color” and the British spelling “colour”.

References := Understanding regular expressions is fundamental in various computing tasks, including cybersecurity operations. The Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) material covers the use of regular expressions for searching through logs and data, which is a critical skill for a cybersecurity analyst.

Integrity is a metric in CVSS that measures the impact of a vulnerability on the trustworthiness and veracity of the data or information in a system. A vulnerability that affects the integrity of a system can allow an attacker to modify, delete, or corrupt the data or information without authorization. An example of such a vulnerability is a bank account number tampering attack, where an attacker changes the destination bank account number of a transaction to redirect the funds to their own account. References: Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) - Cisco, page 2-17; 200-201 CBROPS - Cisco, exam topic 1.3.c

 Social engineering attacks are techniques that exploit human psychology and behavior to manipulate or deceive people into performing actions or divulging information that can compromise the security of the organization. An example of a social engineering attack is receiving an email from human resources requesting a visit to their secure website to update contact information. This could be a phishing attempt to trick the user into clicking on a malicious link or entering their credentials on a fake website that looks like the legitimate one. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals - Module 6: Security Incident Investigations

A host-based intrusion detection system (HIDS) monitors a computer system for suspicious activity by analyzing events occurring within that host. It can detect malicious activities and security policy violations by examining system calls, application logs, file-system modifications (such as rootkit installations), and other host activities. HIDS is an essential component in safeguarding the IT infrastructure against unauthorized access and security breaches.

References := The Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) course material covers the monitoring of alerts and breaches, and the understanding and following of established procedures for response to alerts converted to incidents, which includes the use of host-based intrusion detection systems

Packet number 2318 is the one that contains a file that is extractable within Wireshark. This can be determined by the information provided in the packet details, which typically includes an HTTP GET request indicating the retrieval of a file, such as an image or document1.

The exhibit shows a high rate of SYN packets being sent from multiple sources towards a single destination IP. This is indicative of a SYN flood attack, where the attacker sends a succession of SYN requests to a target’s system in an attempt to consume enough server resources to make the system unresponsive to legitimate traffic. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals - Module 4: Network Intrusion Analysis

During the examination phase of the forensic process, digital forensic investigators use various tools and techniques to extract and analyze information from the collected data. This phase involves detailed scrutiny of the data to uncover relevant evidence and is critical for the success of the forensic investigation.

The explanation aligns with the standard phases of digital forensics, which include identification, preservation, examination, documentation, and presentation as outlined in digital forensics literature and guidelines.

SQL injection is a type of injection attack where malicious SQL statements are inserted into an entry field for execution.

The primary way to prevent SQL injection is by validating and sanitizing user input. This involves checking the input for malicious content and ensuring it adheres to expected patterns.

Prepared statements (parameterized queries) are also highly effective, as they treat user input as data rather than executable code.

Implementing these practices ensures that any input received from users does not manipulate SQL queries in a harmful way.

References

OWASP SQL Injection Prevention Cheat Sheet

Best Practices for Input Validation and Sanitization

Secure Coding Guidelines

Agent-based monitoring: With agent-based monitoring, software agents are installed on the monitored systems or devices. These agents collect data locally, perform filtering or preprocessing of the data, and then transmit the relevant or valuable information to the monitoring system. Agent-based monitoring allows for local processing and filtering, which can reduce network utilization by only transmitting essential data. Agentless monitoring: Agentless monitoring, on the other hand, does not require software agents to be installed on the monitored systems or devices. Instead, it relies on leveraging existing protocols and interfaces, such as APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) or SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), to remotely access and retrieve monitoring data from the target systems. Agentless monitoring generally involves higher network utilization as the monitoring system needs to gather data from remote systems over the network.

The scenario described involves an attacker conducting an aggressive ARP scan followed by multiple SSH Server Banner and Key Exchange Initiations. The lack of visibility into the encrypted data transmitted over the SSH channel suggests that the attacker may have gained access by brute-forcing the SSH service. This method involves attempting numerous combinations of usernames and passwords until the correct credentials are found, allowing unauthorized access to the server.

Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS) course1.

Cisco Cybersecurity documents and resources

False positives and false negatives are terms used to describe the accuracy of security alerts. A false positive occurs when a security system incorrectly identifies benign activity as malicious, leading to unnecessary investigation and potential disruption of legitimate activities. Conversely, a false negative happens when a security system fails to detect actual malicious activity, allowing the attackers to proceed undetected. The impact of false positives is generally wasted time and resources investigating non-issues, while the impact of false negatives can be much more severe, potentially leading to undetected breaches and significant damage.

The CBROPS curriculum covers the concepts of false positives and false negatives in the context of security monitoring and alerting systems

 A denial-of-service attack represents the evasion technique of resource exhaustion, where the attacker overwhelms a system’s resources, making the system unusable and unable to handle legitimate requests. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Source Documents

The improper use or disclosure of Personally Identifiable Information (PII) falls under the category of compliance because organizations are required to adhere to laws and regulations that protect the privacy and security of PII. This includes following guidelines set forth by privacy laws such as GDPR, HIPAA, and others that mandate the proper handling of personal data to prevent misuse and unauthorized access123.

References := Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals (CBROPS), Personally identifiable information (PII): What it is, how it’s used, and how to protect it, What is PII? Examples, laws, and standards, Overview of the Privacy Act: 2020 Edition

tcpdump

➡️ full packet capture

Cisco Umbrella➡️ transaction data

stateful firewall➡️ connection event

Snort➡️ session data

Security monitoring relies on collecting different types of telemetry, each providing a unique level of visibility. These data types range from high-level connection summaries to full packet inspection, and different technologies are optimized for each purpose.

tcpdump is a command-line packet capture utility that records raw network packets directly from an interface. It captures complete packet payloads and headers, making it a full packet capture tool commonly used for deep forensic analysis and protocol troubleshooting.

Cisco Umbrella operates primarily at the DNS and web layer, logging requests, responses, destinations, and policy decisions. This information represents transaction data, showing what was requested, when, and whether it was allowed or blocked—without full packet payloads.

A stateful firewall tracks the state of network connections, such as session initiation, continuation, and termination. It records connection events, including source, destination, ports, and allow/deny decisions, which are critical for traffic flow analysis and incident scoping.

Snort is a network intrusion detection and prevention system (IDS/IPS) that analyzes traffic flows using rules and signatures. It tracks conversations and detects suspicious behavior across sessions, providing session data rather than raw packet captures.

Cybersecurity operations documentation emphasizes correlating these different data types to gain layered visibility, allowing SOC teams to detect, investigate, and respond to threats efficiently.

Rule-based detection methods rely on predefined rules and patterns that are known beforehand. These rules are created based on prior knowledge of what constitutes normal and abnormal behavior.

Statistical detection, on the other hand, involves analyzing data to identify anomalies. It is based on assumptions about what normal behavior looks like and uses statistical methods to detect deviations from this norm.

Rule-based systems are typically straightforward but may miss novel attacks that do not match existing rules.

Statistical methods can detect previously unknown threats by recognizing patterns that deviate from established baselines but may produce more false positives.

References

Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) Concepts

Comparative Studies on Rule-based and Statistical Anomaly Detection

Understanding Anomaly Detection in Network Security

 When communicating via TLS, part of the handshake process involves presenting a certificate containing the server name, the name of the trusted CA that issued the certificate, and the public key of the server. The client can verify the validity of the certificate and use the public key to encrypt the data sent to the server. References := Cisco Cybersecurity Source Documents

The exhibit shows a log of HTTP GET requests, one of which includes a suspicious string that is indicative of a Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) attack. XSS attacks involve injecting malicious scripts into webpages viewed by other users. These scripts can be used to steal information, redirect users to malicious websites, or perform actions on behalf of the user without their consent. References: Cisco Cybersecurity Operations Fundamentals, Module 1: Security Concepts, Lesson 1.3: Common Network Application Operations and Attacks, Topic 1.3.2: Web Application Attacks