AIP-210 CertNexus Certified Artificial Intelligence Practitioner (CAIP) Questions and Answers

Entanglement in ML pipelines occurs when a change in one step affects other steps that depend on it. Changing the normalization function in the feature engineering step would affect the model training and evaluation steps, as they rely on the features generated by the feature engineering step. Therefore, this scenario is an example of entanglement in ML pipelines. The other scenarios are not examples of entanglement, as they do not affect other steps in the pipeline.

Skip-gram and TF-IDF are both text vectorization methods that convert text into numerical feature vectors. Skip-gram is a prediction-based word embedding method that learns vector representations of words from their contexts in a large corpus of text. TF-IDF is a frequency-based word weighting method that assigns scores to words based on their importance in a document and in a corpus of documents. References: Text Vectorization and Word Embedding | Guide to Master NLP (Part 5), What Is Text Vectorization? Everything You Need to Know - deepset

The Beta value in an A/B test is the probability of making a type II error, which is failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false. The statistical power of a test is the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false, which is equal to 1 - Beta. References: Formulas for Bayesian A/B Testing – Evan Miller, The Practical Guide To AB testing statistics | Convertize

SVM models can use kernel functions to map the input data into higher-dimensional feature spaces, where linear separation is possible. This allows SVM models to handle non-linear problems effectively. References: CertNexus Certified Artificial Intelligence Practitioner, Support vector machine - Wikipedia

Highly interpretable models are models that can provide clear and intuitive explanations for their predictions, such as decision trees, linear regression, or logistic regression. Some of the statements that are true regarding highly interpretable models are:

• They are usually easier to explain to business stakeholders: Highly interpretable models can help communicate the logic and reasoning behind their predictions, which can increase trust and confidence among business stakeholders. For example, a decision tree can show how each feature contributes to a decision outcome, or a linear regression can show how each coefficient affects the dependent variable.
• They usually compromise on model accuracy for the sake of interpretability: Highly interpretable models may not be able to capture complex or non-linear patterns in the data, which can reduce their accuracy and generalization. For example, a decision tree may overfit or underfit the data if it is too deep or too shallow, or a linear regression may not be able to model curved relationships between variables.

When concept drift is detected in the pipeline, it means that the model performance has degraded over time due to changes in the underlying data generating process. This requires retraining the model with new data that reflects the current situation and updating the model parameters accordingly. References: Use pipeline parameters to retrain models in the designer - Azure Machine Learning | Microsoft Learn, Retraining Model During Deployment: Continuous Training and Continuous Testing

Underfitting is a problem that occurs when a model learns too little from the training data and fails to capture the underlying complexity or structure of the data. Underfitting can result from using insufficient or irrelevant features, a low complexity of the model, or a lack of training data. Underfitting can reduce the accuracy and generalization of the model, as it may produce oversimplified or inaccurate predictions. Some of the ways to fix underfitting are:

• Add features to training data: Adding more features or variables to the training data can help increase the information and diversity of the data, which can help the model learn more complex patterns and relationships.
• Increase the complexity of the model: Increasing the complexity of the model can help increase its expressive power and flexibility, which can help it fit better to the data. For example, adding more layers or nodes to a neural network can increase its complexity.
• Train the model for more epochs: Training the model for more epochs can help increase its learning ability and convergence, which can help it optimize its parameters and reduce its error.

Getting more training data will not work to fix underfitting, as it will not change the complexity or structure of the data or the model. Getting more training data may help with overfitting, which is when a model learns too much from the training data and fails to generalize well to new or unseen data.

Overfitting is a problem that occurs when a model learns too much from the training data and fails to generalize well to new or unseen data. Overfitting can result from using a low quantity of training data, a high complexity of the model, or a lack of regularization. Overfitting can also increase the risk of reverse-engineering a dataset from a model’s outputs, as the model may reveal too much information about the specific features or patterns of the training data. This can break the confidentiality of the data and expose sensitive information about the individuals in the dataset .

Increasing the speed of analysis is a benefit of machine learning for solving business problems. Machine learning is a branch of artificial intelligence that involves creating systems that can learn from data and make predictions or decisions. Machine learning can help increase the speed of analysis by automating and optimizing various tasks, such as data processing, feature extraction, model training, model evaluation, or model deployment. Machine learning can also help handle large and complex data sets that may be difficult or impractical to analyze manually or with traditional methods.

Accuracy is a measure of how well a classifier can correctly predict the class of an instance. Accuracy is calculated by dividing the number of correct predictions (true positives and true negatives) by the total number of predictions. True positives are instances that are correctly predicted as positive (belonging to the target class). True negatives are instances that are correctly predicted as negative (not belonging to the target class).

Semi-supervised learning is a type of machine learning that uses both labeled and unlabeled data to train a model. Semi-supervised learning can be useful when:

• Labeling data is challenging and expensive: Labeling data requires human intervention and domain expertise, which can be costly and time-consuming. Semi-supervised learning can leverage the large amount of unlabeled data that is easier and cheaper to obtain and use it to improve the model’s performance.
• There is a large amount of unlabeled data to be used for predictions: Unlabeled data can provide additional information and diversity to the model, which can help it learn more complex patterns and generalize better to new data. Semi-supervised learning can use various techniques, such as self-training, co-training, or generative models, to incorporate unlabeled data into the learning process.

A type 1 error in statistical hypothesis testing is when the null hypothesis is true, but is rejected. This means that the test falsely concludes that there is a significant difference or effect when there is none. The probability of making a type 1 error is denoted by alpha, which is also known as the significance level of the test. A type 1 error can be reduced by choosing a smaller alpha value, but this may increase the chance of making a type 2 error, which is when the null hypothesis is false but fails to be rejected. References: [Type I and type II errors - Wikipedia], [Type I Error and Type II Error - Statistics How To]

An activation function is a function that determines the output of a neuron in a neural network based on its input. An activation function can introduce non-linearity into a neural network, which allows it to model complex and non-linear relationships between inputs and outputs. Some of the common activation functions are:

• Sigmoid: A sigmoid function is a function that maps any real value to a value between 0 and 1. It has an S-shaped curve and is often used for binary classification or probability estimation.
• Hyperbolic tangent: A hyperbolic tangent function is a function that maps any real value to a value between -1 and 1. It has a similar shape to the sigmoid function but is symmetric around the origin. It is often used for regression or classification problems.
• ReLU: A ReLU (rectified linear unit) function is a function that maps any negative value to 0 and any positive value to itself. It has a piecewise linear shape and is often used for hidden layers in deep neural networks.

Additive is not an activation function, but rather a term that describes a property of some functions. Additive functions are functions that satisfy the condition f(x+y) = f(x) + f(y) for any x and y. Additive functions are linear functions, which means they have a constant slope and do not introduce non-linearity.

Distributed artificial intelligence (DAI) is a subfield of artificial intelligence that studies how multiple intelligent agents can coordinate and cooperate to achieve a common goal or solve a complex problem. DAI relies on a distributed system that performs robust computations across a network of unreliable nodes, such as sensors, robots, or humans. DAI can handle large-scale, dynamic, and uncertain environments that are beyond the capabilities of a single agent. References: [Distributed artificial intelligence - Wikipedia], [Distributed Artificial Intelligence: An Overview]

A neural network without an activation function is equivalent to a form of a linear regression. A neural network is a computational model that consists of layers of interconnected nodes (neurons) that process inputs and produce outputs. An activation function is a function that determines the output of a neuron based on its input. An activation function can introduce non-linearity into a neural network, which allows it to model complex and non-linear relationships between inputs and outputs. Without an activation function, a neural network becomes a linear combination of inputs and weights, which is essentially a linear regression model.

Security measures can be applied in different ML workflow stages to defend them against malicious activities, such as data theft, model tampering, or adversarial attacks. Some of the security measures are:

• Launch ML Instances In a virtual private cloud (VPC): A VPC is a logically isolated section of a cloud provider’s network that allows users to launch and control their own resources. By launching ML instances in a VPC, users can enhance the security and privacy of their data and models, as well as restrict the access and traffic to and from the instances.
• Use data encryption: Data encryption is the process of transforming data into an unreadable format using a secret key or algorithm. Data encryption can protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data at rest (stored in databases or files) or in transit (transferred over networks). Data encryption can prevent unauthorized access, modification, or leakage of sensitive data.
• Use Secrets Manager to protect credentials: Secrets Manager is a service that helps users securely store, manage, and retrieve secrets, such as passwords, API keys, tokens, or certificates. Secrets Manager can help users protect their credentials from unauthorized access or exposure, as well as rotate them automatically to comply with security policies.

IBM Watson is an AI technology that can take a question in natural language and return a precise answer to the question. IBM Watson is a cognitive computing system that can understand natural language, generate hypotheses, and provide evidence-based answers. IBM Watson can be applied to various domains and industries, such as healthcare, education, finance, or law.

Encoding is a technique that transforms categorical data into numerical features that can be used by machine learning models. Categorical data are data that have a finite number of possible values or categories, such as gender, color, or country. Encoding can help convert categorical data into a format that is suitable and understandable for machine learning models. Some of the encoding methods that can be used to transform categorical data into numerical features are:

• Mean Encoder: Mean encoder is a method that replaces each category with the mean value of the target variable for that category. Mean encoder can capture the relationship between the category and the target variable, but it may cause overfitting or multicollinearity problems.
• One-Hot Encoder: One-hot encoder is a method that creates a binary vector for each category, where only one element has a value of 1 (the hot bit) and the rest have a value of 0. One-hot encoder can create distinct and orthogonal vectors for each category, but it may increase the dimensionality and sparsity of the data.

To calculate the minimum grade needed to achieve an 80% average, we can use the following formula:

minimum grade = (target average * number of tests - sum of grades) / (number of tests - 1)

Plugging in the given values, we get:

minimum grade = (80 * 7 - (76 + 81 + 78 + 87 + 75 + 72)) / (7 - 6)

minimum grade = (560 - 469) / 1

minimum grade = 91

Therefore, the student needs to score at least 91 on the last test to get an 80% average.

Lasso regression and ridge regression are both types of linear regression models that can handle high-dimensional and categorical data. They use regularization techniques to reduce the complexity of the model and avoid overfitting. Lasso regression uses L1 regularization, which adds a penalty term proportional to the absolute value of the coefficients to the loss function. This can shrink some coefficients to zero and perform feature selection. Ridge regression uses L2 regularization, which adds a penalty term proportional to the square of the coefficients to the loss function. This can shrink all coefficients towards zero and reduce multicollinearity. References: [Lasso (statistics) - Wikipedia], [Ridge regression - Wikipedia]

Latency is the time delay between a request and a response. Latency can affect the performance and user experience of an application, especially when real-time or near-real-time responses are required. Deploying a deep learning model as an embedded model on edge devices can reduce latency, as the model can run locally on the device without relying on network connectivity or cloud servers. Edge devices are devices that are located at the edge of a network, such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, sensors, cameras, or drones.

Random forest is an algorithm that is ideal to prevent overfitting when using a dataset with many features and a small sample size. Random forest is an ensemble learning method that combines multiple decision trees to create a more robust and accurate model. Random forest can prevent overfitting by introducing randomness and diversity into the model, such as by using bootstrap sampling (sampling with replacement) to create different subsets of data for each tree, or by using feature selection (choosing a random subset of features) to split each node in a tree.